博文
英语语法要领通识-8-句法（8.2-定语从句）重新发布
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8.2-定语从句
Contents
1-2-2）先行词由only, first, last等词修饰
如前所述，英语句子按结构可分为简单句、并列句、复合句、特殊句型等几种。其中的复合句也就是主从句，即由一个主句和一个以上从句组合而成的句型。从句由从属连词（包括连词although, because, if, whether等、连接副词when, where, why, how等与连接代词who, whom, whose, which, what等）引导。主从复合句中的从句分为定语从句、状语从句及名词性从句三大类。名词性从句又可按其用作句子的具体名词性功能成份分类为主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、同位语从句及补语从句。本系列博文已在“8.1-词句法概要”中对于简单句与并列句作了较为详细的讨论。由于主从复合句内容最为复杂繁多，故在本篇下述以及后续篇章中按照上述分类法分别对主从复合句的三大类从句分别加以专题讨论。
（1）定语从句概念
定语从句（Attributive Clause）是指作为主句成份的名代词或其词组所后接的具有对其进行限定、描述或修饰等功用的从句，也称形容词性从句。被修饰的主句成份称为先行词。整个主句也可以被非限制性定语从句修饰，故应该称被修饰的主句为先行句。引出定语从句的引导词具有三种功能，即“引出定语从句”、“指代主句中的先行词或指代主句”并“兼作定语从句中的某种成份”。引出定语从句的从属连词一般有两大类，称作关系代词（包括who, whom, whose, that, which，在定语从句中可用作主语、宾语、表语、补语等）和关系副词（包括when, where, why，在定语从句中只能用作状语），另外还有一些特殊的引导词如as, than, but可引出定语从句。
定语从句可按与先行词关系的密切程度，分为限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句。限制性定语从句与其先行词关系密切，对先行词具有不可或缺的限定性（缺失则影响语意的完整性），在先行词和限制性定语从句之间没有逗号；而非限制性定语从句与其先行词或先行句之间关系不密切，仅具有描述或修饰性的补充说明，不具必要性，即在其缺失情况下不影响先行词或先行句的性质和语意，在先行词或先行句与非限制性定语从句之间须加逗号。修饰整个主句的定语从句均为由关系代词which或特殊引导词as引出的非限制性定语从句。
新英语语法中采用“关系分句（Relative Clause）”替代“定语从句”，其理由是，传统英语语法的从句分类方法是依据句法功能（即以定语、状语、主语、宾语、表语、补语等成份的名称命名从句），而新英语语法的从句分类是依据句法结构。“关系分句”就是依据由“关系代词或关系副词”引出的从句而命名的。因此，其“关系分句”不仅包括了传统的“定语从句”，还包括了凡是由连接/关系代词或连接/关系副词引出的某些“状语从句”和“并列分句”。如：
a) She is the woman who lives the next door to us. 她就是住在我们隔壁的那个女人。（传统英语语法分类称who引出的从句为“定语从句”，新英语语法分类称为“关系分句”）
b) Shortly after Abraham•Lincoln took office, the Southern States rebelled. They set up a state of their own, where they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves. 亚伯拉罕·林肯就职后不久，南方各州就叛乱了。他们建立了一个自己的国家，在那里他们可以继续随意把黑人当作奴隶。（传统英语语法分类称where引出的从句为“非限制性定语从句（作为引导词的where是关系副词，其先行词是主句中的a state）”，新英语语法分类称为“状语分句”，其理由是：where they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves 相当于so that they would be free to keep Negroes as slaves，即相当于目的状语“为的是（以便）他们在那里可以继续随意把黑人当作奴隶。”）
c) He said he had lost his watch, which was not true. 他说他丢了手表，那不是实话。（传统英语语法分类称which引出的从句为“非限制性定语从句”，新英语语法分类称为“并列分句”，其理由是：which was not true 相当于 but it was not true，即相当于并列分句。）
但令人质疑的是，上述后两个例句虽然“表意”相当，但毕竟“结构”不同，因此对其如何归类还是应该严格规定。
（2）限制性定语从句
限制性定语从句具有两个特点：在形式上，定语从句与其所修饰的先行词之间没有标点符号；在意义上，定语从句不可或缺，否则被修饰的先行词将性质不明或/和语意不清。如：
a) A soldier who does not want to be a general is not a good soldier. 不想当将军的士兵就不是个好士兵。
b) Don't be afraid of the attack that is made by taking the clear-cut position and unequivocal words. Be afraid of the offense or ruination that is done by conspiratorial means even with power. 明火执仗的攻击并不可怕，可怕的是阴沟暗道的甚至加权作害。
（3）非限制性定语从句
非限制性定语从句也具有两个特点：在形式上，非限制性定语从句与被修饰的先行词或被修饰的整个主句（或称先行句）之间必须用逗号隔开；在意义上，非限制性定语从句只是作进一步补充和说明，在其缺失的情况下并不影响被修饰的先行词或先行句的性质、特征及语意的基本完整性。如：
a) Anyone needs to make his aspirations and dreams come true, which is one of the elementary human rights. 任何人都有实现抱负和梦想的需求，这是一项基本人权。
b) Torment is a nurse of making maturity, who roughly rocks the cradle and the baby in it grows up and gets strength day by day. “折磨”是造就“成熟”的“保姆”，她粗暴地晃动着摇篮，而摇篮中的孩子却日益强大。
c) Only if a person is of the positively aspirant life attitude and dialectic thinking, he has half his success achieved, let alone who likes challenges difficult situations.一个人只要拥有积极向上的人生态度并具有辩证思维，他就已经成功一半了，更不用说他还喜欢挑战困境呢！
d) There were few passengers in the bus, who escaped without serious injury. 那辆公交车上没几个乘客，他们脱险了，没受重伤。（关系代词who引导非限制性定语从句）【比较：There were few passengers in the bus who escaped without serious injury. 在那辆公交车上没受重伤的已脱险乘客没几个。（关系代词who引导限制性定语从句）】
e) Once more I am in Beijing, where I have not been for three years. 我又一次来到北京，我已经有三年没到这里来了。
f) Human history has amply proved it that Hitler and the similar persons, who were the same low-class scoundrels plus with extreme madness as him, once in power must become the root causes of the serious disasters for all the human beings. 人类历史已经充分证明，希特勒之类的低级恶棍加超级疯狂的人一旦大权在握,就必定成为全人类严重灾难的祸根。
当用定语从句修饰专有名词时，必须是非限制性的。如：
f) John, whom many people consider successful, believes that happiness is success. 约翰，很多人认为他是成功的，他认为幸福就是成功。
g) Unlike Intelligence Quotient (IQ), which changes little after our teen years, Emotional Quotient (EQ) seems to be largely learned all the way in life. 与智商不同，智商在我们成年后变化不大，情商似乎在很大程度上是终身一路习得的。
h) We respect Emily very much now, whom we used to misunderstand so much. 我们现在很尊重艾米莉，过去我们可是时常对她产生许多误会。
（4）由关系代词引导的定语从句
关系代词包括that, which, who, whom和whose，在定语从句中可用作主语、宾语、表语或定语等。
1）that引导定语从句
用作关系代词的that可指代人或事物，即可引出人或事物作先行词的定语从句，在定语从句中可用作主语、宾语或表语；在指代人时可与who, whom互换，在指代事物时可与which互换。关系代词that可用作动词的宾语，且可省，但不可用作介宾，即定语从句中的介词不可提至关系代词that之前，若须介词提前，则须将关系代词that换作which（指代事物）或whom（指代人）来替代。
1-1）一般情况的用法
a) Passion is a button that/which starts the success. 激情是启动成功的按扭。（that/which 在定语从句中作主语）
b) Once dreams die, life is like a wing-broken bird that/which cannot fly. 一旦梦想破灭，人生就像断了翅膀不能飞翔的鸟儿。（that/which在定语从句中作主语）
c) After this affair, he is not the man that/whom he used to be. 经过这次事件之后，他可不是原先的那个他了。（that/whom在定语从句中作表语）
d) The lady that/whom you met at the airport is a famous actress. 你在机场遇见的那位女士是个名演员。（that/whom 在定语从句中作宾语）
1-2）习惯用法
关系代词that取代which/who/whom用于定语从句的现象在习惯用法中更常见。
1-2-1）先行词是不定代词
当先行词为something, everything, anything, nothing, all, much, many, some, any, few, little, one, none 等不定代词时，定语从句常见由that引出。如：
e) First to take responsibility for your character is something that you need to do in order to become a person of influence. 要想成为有影响力的人，首先需要对自己的品质负责。
f) There's no way we can know in advance anything that is going to happen. 我们无法先知先觉。
g) Although one knows people around the world, there are few that are close friends. I mean that the pure and true friendship is really too precious.即使认识全世界的人，无间知己也没几个。我的意思是说，纯真的友谊实在是太珍贵了。（that在定语从句中作主语）
h) One that serves God for money will serve devils for more money. 为了金钱服务于上帝的人，也会为了更多的金钱服务于魔鬼。（that在定语从句中作主语）
i) The best coach with the strongest power is just the one that lives within you. 最好最强的教练就是活在你内心深处的那个教练。（that在定语从句中作主语）
j) Everyone needs someone that he feels really listening to him. 每个人都需要真正倾听自己声音的人。（that在定语从句中作动词第三人称单数形式feels的宾语）
1-2-2）先行词由only, first, last等词修饰
当先行词由only, first, last等词修饰时，定语从句多由that引导。如：
k) To face up to threats is the only tactics that makes the way out. 勇敢面对恐吓是唯一的出路战术。
1-2-3）先行词是形容词最高级或由其修饰
当先行词是形容词最高级或是由形容词最高级修饰时，定语从句多由that引导。如：
l) The present moment is the best gift that you can give yourself. 当下的时光是你能给予自己最好的礼物。
m) The roots of true achievement lie in your will to become the best that you can do. 真正的成就扎根于“你想要自己成为最好你”的意志。
2）which引导定语从句
关系代词which只能引导修饰事物的定语从句，在从句中作主语、宾语或表语。当非限制性定语从句修饰整个主句时通常也只能用which引出（唯一例外是特殊引导词as也可引出）。
2-1）一般情况的用法
a) Agility is the intelligent key which opens the gate of happiness. 灵活是打开幸福之门的智能钥匙。（which在定语从句中作主语）
b) It is equal to no brains of themselves that the grasses stand on the top of the wall which sway with every gust of wind there. 随风倒的墙头草就等于没头脑。（关系代词which引出的定语从句的先行词是the grasses）
2-2）关系代词which既带介词又修饰名词
关系代词which既带介词又修饰名词的定语从句是一种特殊的定语从句，即which之前带介词，之后修饰名词，加入名词是为表达更明确，常见搭配有at which point（这时），at which time（这时），by which time（到这时为止），during which time （在此期间）， for which reason （由于这个原因），in which case （在这种情况下）等。如：
c) Mozart gave his first performance at the age of five at which time he had already begun to compose music. 莫扎特五岁首次登台演出，那时他就已经开始作曲了。
d) Your leadership potential is evident but needs further development, for which reason we have selected you for management training. 你的领导潜能显而易见，但还需进一步发展，为此我们选了你参加管理培训。
e) Tough challenges may well present some difficulties, in which case listen to what people can contribute to the solution. 严峻的挑战很可能会出现一些困难，在这种情况下要听取人们对解决问题的意见。
2-3）须用which不用that引导
定语从句修饰事物时，在某些情况下关系代词只能用which而不能用that。
2-3-1）关系代词前有介词
当关系代词之前带有介词时，只能用which引导定语从句。如：
f) Behavior is a mirror in which everyone shows his psyche and image. 行为是反映每个人的心灵与形象的一面镜子。
g) A failure is something from which we can always learn. 我们总是可以从失败中学到一些东西的。
2-3-2）引导非限制性定语从句
当非限制性定语从句相当于并列句分句时，即非限制性定语从句修饰整个主句时，通常只用which而不用that引导（唯一例外是特殊引导词as也可作为整个主句的非限制性定语从句的引导词，详见后续第（6）部分内容）。如：
h) Anybody has to love what he does, which means he need to know himself pretty well. 一个人必须热爱自己所做的事，这就意味着他需要很好地认识自己。
i) One has the courage to own himself in the wrong, which is saying that he is better today than that yesterday. 一个人勇于承认错误，那就是说他今天比昨天更优秀。
j) One may go wrong in many different ways but right only in one, which is why it is easy to fail and difficult to succeed. 一个人犯错误的方式可能会有很多种，但是做对的方式只有一种。这就是为什么失败容易成功难的原因。
k) A cat is an unusual coward, which makes a group of mice be overweening and overturn the heaven and the earth. 猫咪特懦弱，老鼠傲翻天。
l) Anything done by illegal and unreasonable means must be questioned, of which they should have accused somebody publicly according to the legal principles and the true facts but they have only done stealthily for a long time. Only by tripartite confrontation can the truth come to light.凡是以不合法理手段所为的事，即依法理与实情本该公开指责某人却只是长期偷偷摸摸去干的事，均须质疑。只有三朝对面，才能真相大白。
m) Anything done by illegal and unreasonable means must be questioned, of which they should have accused somebody face to face by the legal principles and the true facts but they have only dared to impute him back to back for a long time. Only by tripartite confrontation can the truth come to light. 凡是以不合法理手段所为的事，即本该依法理与实情面对面向某人问责却只敢长期背靠背归咎的事，均须质疑。只有三朝对面，才能真相大白。
2-3-3）先行词是that
当先行词是that时，为避免重复，定语从句常由which代替that引出。如：
n) Doing that which you excel at is a major postulate for future success. 做自己所擅长的工作是未来成功的一个要素。
o) The really significant reading is that which makes the readers who have problems become clear. 真正有意义的阅读会使有疑问的读者消除疑问。（which引出的定语从句中又含有who引出的一个定语从句，关系代词which的先行词是that，关系代词who的先行词是the readers）
3）who引导定语从句
关系代词who引导的定语从句的先行词通常是表人的名代词，在从句中作主语、宾语或表语。如：
a) God helps those who help themselves. 天助自助者。（who在定语从句中作主语，先行词是代词those）
b) The world always makes way for / gives way to the people who know where they themselves are going. 这个世界总是让路给那些自己明确前进方向的人。（who在定语从句中作主语）
c) One who keeps abreast of the times remains young. 与时俱进者青春常在。（who在定语从句中作主语）
d) Ninety-nine percent of failures come from people who have the habit of making excuses. 百分之九十九的失败都来自于那些惯于制造借口的人。（who在定语从句中作主语）
e) It takes courage to grow up and turn out to be the person who you really are. 成长为真正的自己是需要勇气的。（who在定语从句中作表语）
f) The person who’d rather believe his ears than his eyes must be one either with a defect of his ability to think or with a selfish plot. 宁愿相信耳朵也不愿相信眼睛的人，要么是思维能力有问题，要么是有一己私利图谋。
g) Do keep away from those who injure you with subjective viciousness. 一定要远离恶意伤害你的人。
4）whom引导定语从句
关系代词whom引导修饰人的定语从句，在定语从句中作动词或介词的宾语，其先行词可以是名代词。在定语从句中，当介词不在关系代词前或关系代词不作介宾时，用作关系代词的whom可由 who替代。如：
a) I know the man whom you mean. 我认识你所指的那个人。
b) The student about whom you talked just now has come. 你刚才谈论的那个学生来了。【比较：The student whom/who you talked about just now has come. 你刚才谈论的那个学生来了。（当介词about后置时，即关系代词whom不作介宾时，可以who替换whom）】
5）whose引导定语从句
关系代词whose在定语从句中作定语，可以引导修饰人或事物的定语从句。如：
a) Be a one whose words are as good as deeds. 要做个言行一致的人。
b) Happiness never favors the man whose kindness fails. 幸福从不眷顾缺德的人。
c) Excellent personality is an inner strong force, whose existence functions directly all one’s life, needing no help of any means. 优秀人格是一种强大的内力，其存在直接发挥作用于整个人生，无需借助任何手段。
（5）由关系副词引导的定语从句
关系副词包括when, where, why，在定语从句中分别用作时间、地点或原因状语。
1）when引导定语从句
由关系副词when引导的定语从句，如：
a) We won't in life always meet a time when everything we do is rewarded justly. But it is not the purpose of our doing that because we do that only for our contemporaries and descendants feel happier. 一生中，我们不一定总是遇到所做的一切都得到公正报偿的时刻。但那并不是我们所作所为的目的，我们所做的一切都是为了我们当代以及子孙后代更加幸福。
b) The moments when you have a really meaningful life are the moments when you do everything in a spirit of great love. 真正有意义的生存时刻就是你以大爱的精神做事的时刻。
2）where引导定语从句
由关系副词where引导的定语从句，如：
a) We live in a world where satisfaction is just at the available instant. 我们生活在一个能够得到则即刻满足的世界。
b) Only working is the state where happiness lies. 惟有工作才是幸福之所在。【注：当先行词为抽象地点如“point要点, state状态, stage舞台（之前用“人生”等词修饰）, position职位, situation处境”等涵义时，也用关系副词where引导定语从句。】
3）why引导定语从句
关系副词why常见用于引导修饰名词reason的定语从句，在从句中作原因状语。如：
a) The reason why seas are the places that rivers want to go to is that the formers keep below the latters. 大海之所以是百川向往之处，那是由于他们更低下。
b) Someone may make thousands of reasons why he cannot do what he wants to when all he need is one reason why he can do that. 当某人只需要一个他能做某事的理由时，他也许就会制造出成千上万个理由推说“不能做自己想做的事”。
（6）由特殊引导词引导的定语从句
有时，兼具连词与介词性质的than, as, but也可以引导定语从句。
1）than引导定语从句
当先行词是比较级或先行词由形容词比较级修饰时，可用than作关系代词，引导限制性定语从句。如：
a) By yielding within the limitation you get more fairness than you want. 退一步，海阔天空。
b) Wise people always make more opportunities than they expect. 聪明人创造的机会总是比预期的更多。
c) Many people come through periods of suffering with more physical and mental vigor than they were with before. 许多经受过磨难的人都会倍加身心活跃。
2）as引导定语从句
as可用作关系代词，既可以引导限制性定语从句，也可以引导非限制性定语从句。
2-1）引导限制性定语从句
当主句出现such, as, the same等词时，定语从句由as引导，已成固定结构。如：
a) Take such measures as the situation calls for. 按形势所需采取如此对策。
b) Any good person should be the same one in public as he/she is alone, who never does any bad things to harm the others or to jeopardize the public benefits. 任何一个好人在当众或独处时都应该是同一个人，绝不做有损他人与公共利益的坏事。
2-2）引导非限制性定语从句
as引导非限制性定语从句时，从句可置于先行主句前，修饰整个主句。如：
c) As Reade said, no one can strike down you without your defects. 正如里德所言，你自己不倒，就没人能打倒你。
3）but引导定语从句
but可用作关系代词，表“除…之外”，相当于which...not或who...not。如：
a) There is no tree but bears some fruits. 没有不结果的树。（相当于There is no tree which does not bear any fruits.）
b) There is no man but has his shortcomings. 没有没缺点的人。（相当于There is no man who does not have his shortcomings. ）
（7）省略关系代词的定语从句
定语从句的关系代词有时可省，包括三种情况：当关系代词在从句中作宾语且其之前无介词时，关系代词可省；当定语从句修饰名词reason时，关系副词why可省；当定语从句修饰名词way表做事方式时，关系代词可省。
1）当关系代词作宾语且之前无介词时可省
a) Service to others is the membership dues (that/which) one pays for his right of living on this world. 服务于他人就是为在世生活权的付费。
b) Liberty is the only thing (that/which) you cannot get unless you give it to others. 自由是唯一不给予别人则自己也无法得到的东西。
c) The greatest thing (which/that) a father can do for his children is to love their mother. 一位父亲能为孩子做的最好的事就是爱他们的母亲。
2）当先行词是reason时关系副词why可省
a) A lack of planning is the major reason (why) one cannot realize his life ideals. 缺乏规划是无法实现人生理想的主要原因。
b) The first reason (why) leaders are unsuccessful is their inability to lead themselves. 领导者不成功的首要原因就是不能领导自己。
3）定语从句修饰way表做事方式时关系代词可省
a) Your view of life values determines the way (in which/that) you actually do things. 人生价值观决定你实际做事的方式。
b) A great man shows his greatness by the way he treats little men. 伟大的人是通过对待小人物的方式而展现其伟大的。
（8）关系代词前带介词的定语从句
关系代词前带有介词的三种情况包括：由于先行词的需要，由于从句中某词的需要，或由于语意表达的需要。通常，介词也可留在从句末。
1）先行词要求关系代词前须带介词
a) Anyone of us should be of the positive meaning for which we were created in the world. 我们每个被创造而问世的人都应该是有其积极意义的。
b) Most of us can be aware of the extent to which a positive attitude contributes to success. 我们大多数人都能意识到促使成功所需要的积极态度的那种程度。
2）从句中某词要求关系代词前须加介词
a) A man can succeed at almost anything for which he has unlimited enthusiasm. 一个人在自己奉有无限热情的几乎任何事上都能取得成功。（加用介词for是名词enthusiasm的需要）
b) A genius is one who does unique things of which nobody would expect whoever to be capable. 天才是做事独一无二的人，那是没人料到会有人能做到的事。（加用介词of是形容词capable的需要）
3）表语意需要关系代词前加介词
在表达某些语意时，由于从句中词组搭配的需要，常在关系代词前加介词。如：
a) Knowledge is a pair of wings with which we fly to the heaven. 知识是我们借以飞上天堂的一双翅膀。
b) Kindness is a golden chain by which the society is shared by all of us. 友善是社会得以共享的一条金链。
（9）定语从句与先行词的分隔
定语从句有时并不紧跟先行词之后，而是置于句尾，中间被其它词隔开。这种情况通常是因从句较长，主句谓语较短，且先行词是主语。为避免句子头重脚轻，定语从句后置。如：
a) They cannot always win who believe they can. 相信自己能胜利的人不一定就能得胜。（关系代词是who，先行词是主句的主语the persons）
b) The man may still fail who does his best. 竭尽所能的人也许仍会失败。（先行词是主句的主语the man）
c) It is not sure that he laughs best who laughs last. “谁笑在最后，谁笑得最美”，那倒不一定。（先行词是实际主句的主语he）
d) Someone is just an ignorant one who always confuses the true with the artificial, the right with the wrong and the good with the evil. 总是分不清真假、是非与善恶的人就是个愚人。 （先行词是主句的主语someone）
（10）两个以上定语从句修饰一个先行词
出于语意表达需要，一个名词或代词也可由两个或多个定语从句修饰。两个定语从句之间用连词连接。多个定语从句修饰同一个先行词时，前面的两两之间用逗号，只在最后一个从句前用连词连接。如：
a) How to live remains an art which everyone must learn but which no one can teach him completely. 如何生活一直是每个人都必须学会却没人能彻底教会的一门艺术。
b) People who respect themselves and who are self-confident become usually respected by others. 自尊心很强且自信的人通常受人尊敬。
c) A leader is one who sees more than others, who sees farther than others, and who sees before others do. 领导者就是一个比别人看得多、看得远且有先见之明的人。
参考文献
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（待续）
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